徳川体制と地方自治について -徳川体制と地方自治についての要約文１。-

英文と訳があります。和訳は正しいですか？

It is even more true in the sense that the domains became even more closely integrated in the overall administrative structure as time went on, and at the same time were able to consolidate their (albeit subordinate) position relative to the bakufu. Therefore, to talk of the ‘’Tokugawa system’’ or the ‘’Tokugawa bakufu’’ is useful when discussing the administrative structure and developments of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, but after that these terms reflect progressively less of the actual state of affairs and, in particular, the distribution of power. 和訳さらに時が経つにつれて、藩が全体的な行政機構の中に組み込まれていき、同時に幕府に対する相対的な地位を固めることが出来たという事実である。よって、１７世紀から１８世紀初めまでの行政機構およびその発展について議論する場合、「徳川体制」や「徳川幕府」を語ることは有用ではあるが、次第に状況、特に権力の分布という表現を使うものではなくなっていく。

英語の文章と和訳があります。和訳は正しいですか？

It was the fudai han which most faithfully followed Tokugawa precedent and exhortation in internal d omain organization and legislation. It is not surprising, therefore, that the fudai houses should have been very closely identified with the bakufu. Its fortunes were their fortunes. 和訳最も忠実に徳川の慣例と領地内組織や法令における勧告に従ったのは譜代藩であった。したがって、譜代家は幕府と極めて緊密であると同一視されてきたのも驚きではない。幕府の運命は、彼らの運命であった。

英文と日本語訳がありますが、和訳は正しいですか？

There were, however, restraints on the exercise by the han of both administrative and fiscal independence. In the first place, no han government could flout the general regulations of the bakufu on such matters as religion, monetary policy, civil war, or relations with the Kyoto court. In the second place, many of the smaller han were instructed to follow shogunal practice in day-to-day administration. Thirdly, even though a direct levy on han revenues was adopted only once or twice by the bakufu as a last resort in times of grave financial crisis, individual han frequently found themselves compelled to contribute to costly public works schemes (road building, castle repairing, land reclamation) in Edo and elsewhere in the shogunal territory. 日本語訳しかしながら、藩の行政と財政的独立性に関しては行使に制限があった。まず第一に、藩政府は宗教、金融政策、内乱または京都の朝廷との接触といった問題で幕府の全般的規則に逆らうことはできなかった。第二に、弱小藩の多くは日々の行政に関する幕府からの通達に従うよう指示されていた。第三に、深刻な財政危機状態の最後の手段として1度ないしは2度だけ、藩の税収への直接課税が幕府によって採用されたにもかかわらず、個々の藩は頻繁に、江戸や将軍家の御用地のいたるところで自分達が金のかかる公共事業計画（道路建設、城の修理、土地造成）に貢献するよう強制されることに気づいていた。

英文と和訳がありますが、和訳は正しいですか？

Local autonomy also provided for useful initiatives. In finance, for example, nearly all the han governments were confronted by the same shortage of revenue that plagued the bakufu; but after 1800 a few of them hit on remedial policies which were remarkably successful, more so than those attempted by the bakufu itself. In intellectual matters also, the system allowed for considerable diversity, with some han developing distinctive traditions of scholarship and education which were to stand the entire nation in good stead in the troubled years after 1840, and were the ideological mainsprings of its march toward modernity. 日本語訳地方自治もまた有益な戦略を提供した。例えば、財政面でほとんどすべての藩政府が幕府を悩ませたのと同じく歳入不足に直面していた。しかし1800年以降、2，3の藩では幕府が試みたものよりもはるかに著しい成功を収める是正政策を生みだした。学術面でも、幕藩体制は、1840年以降の苦境の時代にも大いに国全体の役にたち、近代化への歩みの観念的推進力となった奨学金や教育制度という独特な伝統の発展をいくつかの藩にもたらす十分な多様性を可能にした。

英文翻訳をお願いします。

In addition to questions of institutional authority and historical precedent, the personal qualities of the first three Tokugawa shoguns did much to confirm their family’s power. All of them were cautious and hard-working men who, although they surrounded themselves with capable advisers, nevertheless reserved the right to make final decisions. Hidetada appears somewhat prim and colorless in comparison with the other two, but there two, but there is no doubt of his administrative ability. Iemitsu is alleged to have been imperious and capricious. He certainly behaved like a strong ruler and it was in his time that the bakufu's control system was ‘perfected’; but whether he was really moody or not – or whether even if he were, this in any way affected the issues at stake – is hard to say.

次の英文を和訳してほしいです。

However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and extended into the twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. これを和訳してほしいです。お願いします。

英文と和訳があります。訳は正しいですか？

Tokugawa rulers certainly did not break any new ground in the way they achieved power. Nor were they unusual in the steps they took to shift the source of power from the battlefield to the palace, the castle, and the council chamber, and in general to convert a position of mere might into one more decently clothed in ideas of right. But while there may have been plenty of precedents for these policies of stabilization and legitimization, what was extraordinary was the resounding success with which the Tokugawa pursued them. The Tokugawa bakufu or government set up its headquarters in Edo on the Kanto plain, in time creating a metropolis out of what had been a fishing village surrounded by marshland. It lasted for over two hindered and fifty years, until 1868. For most of this long period, Japan lived at peace both with the outside world and within her own frontiers. 日本語訳徳川家も決してその例に漏れることはなく、彼らは己の権力を戦場から次第に宮殿や城、朝廷に及ぼしていき、武力を正義という大義名分へと置き換えた。しかし、これらの安定化・法制化政策の前例はたくさん存在したかもしれないが、特筆すべきは徳川政権がこれらの政策を遂行した際に目覚ましい成功を収めたことだった。徳川幕府、即ち政府は本拠を関東平野の江戸に置き、やがて湿地帯に囲まれた漁村であった場所から首都を創りだした。その体制は1868年まで250年以上にも渡って続いたのである。その長い期間のほとんどにおいて、日本は諸外国に対しても自らの未開の地に対しても平和的な関係にあった。

英文を和訳してください。お願いします。　

弟に宿題の英語の訳を手伝うように頼まれたのですが僕自身もあまり英語が得意ではありません・・・。しかし弟の手前英語ができないといえず。。。。。。よろしくお願いいたします。後半が特におかしな和訳になってしまいました・・。 Yet another key factor in those turbulent times was that, once the Tokugawa Shogunate had been overthrown and the Emperor (Meiji) had been restored to power in 1868, those leaders realized that administrative reforms had to be at their top of priority. Consequently, a Cabinet consisting of 11 departments was established where there had been an unmanageable and out-of-date system of court administration; Western codes of civil and penal law were adopted; and, most importantly, local governments were totally revamped and reconstituted along modern lines. New political parties representing various ideologies and interests were also formed, such as Jiyuto (the Liberal Party) in 1881 and Kaishinto (the Reform Party) in 1882. An Imperial decree in 1889 proclaimed constitutional government to be the law of the land. Please note the dates — 1868 and 1889: It took more than two decades for Japan to establish and entrench its modern nation state in the form of democratic institutions. Between the beginning of Meiji and that time, the country was nearly wracked by armed rebellions, violent arguments and numerous clashes of vested interests. Again, a lesson for today: A couple of decades of confusion is very common during reformation. It is not only Japan that is suffering through this seemingly dull nightmare. The United States, Russia and some countries in Europe are going through their own “lost years.” But nothing is truly lost if it leads to something better.

英文と和訳があります。訳は正しいですか？

Basically, the answer is that although, Ieyasu, Hidetada, and Iemitsu accepted the existence of other centers of power and privilege besides the Tokugawa house, they managed to build a governmental machine which would control all of these rival elites indefinitely. Like Hideyoshi, the Tokugawa leaders contented themselves with ruling as ‘’first subjects’’ and deferred to the court by acknowledging the titular sovereignty of the emperor. Also, like Hideyoshi, they tolerated, within fairly broad limits, the independence of both daimyo and religious sects. Unlike Hideyoshi, however, they used their sweeping authority as shoguns to regulate the activites and relationships of court, daimyo, and clerics so as to keep these groups in a state of perpetual subordination. The great and abiding importance of the office of shogun lay in the amount of effective control it conferred on its holders. Whoever held it possessed a right to command which could extend, if need be, to each man, woman, or child in the country, and to every hectare of land in the country. An important point is that the successive Tokugawa shoguns were all formally nominated to their position by the emperor. 和訳基本的に答えは次の通りである。即ち、家康、秀忠、および家光は徳川家と並ぶ権力と特権の中心地の存在を認めたが、この3人はこれらのライバルであるエリートたち全員を永続的に統制する統治機構を構築することに成功した。秀吉と同様に、徳川の将軍たちは「第一の家臣」として統治することで満足し、天皇の有名無実の権威を認めることで、宮延に敬意を払った。さらに、秀吉と同じように、彼らはかなり幅広く大名と宗教勢力の両方の独立を許容した。しかしながら、秀吉とは違って、彼らは朝廷、大名、宗教指導者たちの永続的な服従状態を維持するように、これらの活動や相互関係を規制するための将軍としての全面的な権限を使用した。幕府の偉大さと永続的な重要さは、その保有者に与えられる実効支配の程度に起因する。それを保有するものは誰でも必要とあれば、全国の老若男女および全国の土地の隅々に至るまでに拡大することのできる支配権を有していた。重要な点は、徳川家の将軍はみな天皇によって公式に将軍へと任命された点である。

英文と和訳があります。和訳は正しいですか？

It would be more accurate, if less colorful, to say that han bureaucracy was lord of all it could survey. For, in domain affairs as much as in their relations with the shogun, the daimyo were ‘’victims’’ of bureaucratization; most of the authority they had wielded at the beginning of the seventeenth century as personal rulers quickly passed to councils of hereditary ‘’clan elders’’ (karo). 和訳藩の官僚が検分できるすべての君主であった、という方がたとえ面白みは減るにせよより的確であろう。それゆえ大名は、藩の事柄（内政）においても、将軍（幕府）との関係においてと同じくらい、領地問題では官僚化の「犠牲者」であった。すなわち、１７世紀の初頭では個人的な支配者として彼ら大名が振っていた権限のその大半が急速に世襲の「藩の長老」（家老）たちの評議会へ移行していったのである。

申し訳ありませんが、次の英文を和訳して下さい。

Detailed regulations for important groups or classes underpinned the Tokugawa administrative system. Such regulations took the form of basic codes which were reaffirmed and sometimes revised at the accession of each new shogun. One set, issued between 1601 and 1616 and known collectively as the regulations for Buddhist monasteries (jiin hatto), left doctrine and internal sect organization largely in the hands of the clergy, but made aggressive propaganda an offense and put the management and taxation of temple estates under bakufu supervision. These and later rules for religious houses were enforced by an important group of bakufu officials, the temple magistrates(jisha bugyo). Such legislation made Buddhism, and Shinto, completely dependent on Tokugawa protection. jiin hatto　寺院法度 jisha bugyo　寺社奉行

この英文を和訳して欲しいです。

Gerontology is defined as the science of aging. Actually it is made up of the knowledge about aging derived from many sciences, including biology, pｓychology, and sociology. Ｇｅｒｏｎｔｏｌｏｇｉｓｔｓ are the scientists who study aging. Gerontologists have been accused of focusing only on the declines of aging, and of assuming that the characteristics of the aged are the primary causes of the problems of elders. Such a focus on declines is a subtle form of ageism because it ignores the possibilities of growth and improvement with age. The assumption that the characteristics of elders are the cause of the problems of elders is another subtle from of ageism, because it ignores the extent to which the ageism embedded in our social structure and culture contribute to the problems of elders. The extent to which various theories in gerontology may contribute to ageism is discussed in Chapter 6. Geriatrics is the study of the medical aspects of old age, and the application of gerontology to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of illness among older persons. Thus, while gerontology deals with all aspects of aging, geriatrics is limited to the medical aspects. Physicians may be subject to several kinds of ageism. Because they focus on illness and disability, they may forget that health and ability is normal among elders. They may be tempted to blame any difficult or obscure illness on old age and assume that nothing can be done about it. Geriatricians and other providers of service to elders may exaggerate age differences and needs of elders in order to promote their own service roles. Several gerontologists charge that gerontology is becoming increasingly "biomedicalized" and that this produces a negative view of aging. Kalish suggested that there is a "new ageism" found especially among advocates and service providers for the aged. It stereotypes the "elderly" in terms of the characteristics of the least capable, least healthy, and least alert of the elderly. It perceives the older person as, in effect, a relatively helpless and dependent individual who requires the support services of agencies and other organizations. It encourages the development of services without adequate concern as to whether the outcome of these services contributes to reduction of freedom for the participants to make decisions controlling their own lives. It produces an unrelenting stream of criticism against society in general and certain individuals in society for the mistreatment of the elderly, emphasizing the unpleasant existence faced by the elderly.

英語の文章と和訳があります。和訳は正しいですか？

In addition to questions of institutional authority and historical precedent, the personal qualities of the first three Tokugawa rulers did much to confirm their family’s power. All of them were cautious and hard-working men who, although they surrounded themselves with capable advisers, nevertheless reserved the right to make final decisions. Hidetada appears somewhat prim and colorless in comparison with the other two, but there is no doubt of his administrative ability. Iemitsu is alleged to have been imperious and capricious. He certainly behaved like a strong ruler and it was in his time that the bakufu’s control system was ‘’perfected’’; but whether he was really moody or not-or whether even if he were, this in anyway affected the issues at stake-is hard to say. 和訳制度上の権威と歴史的慣例の問題に加えて、最初の三代の支配者個人の資質は一族の力を固めるのに大いに貢献した。彼らはすべて用心深く勤勉な男で、有能な助言者に囲まれていたがそれでも最終決定する権利は留保していた。秀忠はいくらか他の二人に比較して形式的で中立的に見えるが、そこには彼の行政的手腕があることは間違いない。家光は傲慢であり気まぐれであったと言われている。彼は確かに支配者のように振る舞い、幕府の支配体制が完成したのは彼の時代であった。；しかし、彼が真に気分屋であったのかどうか、あるいは仮に彼がそうだったとしても、何らかの形でそれがその重大な問題に影響を与えたのかどうかは何とも言えない。

この英文を和訳してほしいです。

There is some evidence that these improvements in the characteristics of elders have resulted in more positive views of aging. Tibbitts claimed that during the past 30 to 40 years, U.S. society has moved from holding negative stereotypes of old people to holding positive views in which elders are seen as being able to contribute to the quality of life for themselves, their communities, and society as a whole. Schonfield even argued that the assumption of negative attitudes toward old people is a "social myth" perpetuated by the gerontological literature. We will be examining these attitudes in derail in Chapter 2, but there does appear to be a substantial shift from negative to positive attitudes. The improvements in the physical, mental,social, and economic characteristics of elders have been so marked, and there have been so many programs and services developed for elders only, that many have begun to criticize these programs as discrimination in favor of the aged, or positive ageism. We will be discussing examples of positive ageism throughout this book; but the ones that have drawn most criticism so far are the Medicare program and some features of the Social Security System, such as the automatic cost of living increases in benefits and the tax-exemption of Social Security benefits for most elders. Perhaps these programs have been criticized the most because they involve the most money. Critics are beginning to argue that since elders are no longer deprived economically and since they are now much better off mentally, physically, and socially than they were in the past, it is no longer necessary or fair to continue the enormous expense of these special supports and programs available only to elders. Some argue that the way to reduce positive ageism is to make these supports and programs available to all ages on the basis of need. For example, they recommend that the national health insurance, which only elders now enjoy, be extended to all ages. It is clear that positive ageism is becoming an important issue and promises to become even more important as we are faced with more older people and more expensive programs for "seniors only."

この英文を和訳してほしいです。

Senescence, according to the dictionary, simply means the process or condition of "growing old". However, to biologists and psychologists it connotes "those manifestations in structure and function of a declining or deteriorating nature which take place during the period of life when the mortality rate of a population is accelerated". It also implies progressive and irreversible deterioration. Thus, the connotations are entirely negative. It ignores all the recovery, restoration, growth, development, and improvement of abilities that are possible as humans age. The assumption that senescence or deterioration is all there is to human aging is a negative from of ageism. On the other hand, to deny the senescence or declines in function that usually accompany aging is a positive from of ageism. Senility is defined as "the physical and mental infirmity of old age. It is not actually a medical or scientific term, but it is often used by doctors and laypeople alike to "explain" the behavior and condition of older people. Many of the reactive emotional responses of older people, such as depression, grief, and anxiety, are labeled senility and mistakenly considered to be irreversible and untreatable. This is another form of ageism. Actual brain damage from cerebral arteriosclerosis or Alzheimer's disease probably accounts for only about half of the mental disorders in old age. Only 5 to 10 percent of those over 65 have mental disorders severe enough to interfere with normal function.

英文和訳お願いいたします。＋相談お願いします。

Yet another key factor in those turbulent times was that, once the Tokugawa Shogunate had been overthrown and the Emperor (Meiji) had been restored to power in 1868, those leaders realized that administrative reforms had to be at their top of priority. Consequently, a Cabinet consisting of 11 departments was established where there had been an unmanageable and out-of-date system of court administration; Western codes of civil and penal law were adopted; and, most importantly, local governments were totally revamped and reconstituted along modern lines. New political parties representing various ideologies and interests were also formed, such as Jiyuto (the Liberal Party) in 1881 and Kaishinto (the Reform Party) in 1882. An Imperial decree in 1889 proclaimed constitutional government to be the law of the land. Please note the dates — 1868 and 1889: It took more than two decades for Japan to establish and entrench its modern nation state in the form of democratic institutions. Between the beginning of Meiji and that time, the country was nearly wracked by armed rebellions, violent arguments and numerous clashes of vested interests. Again, a lesson for today: A couple of decades of confusion is very common during reformation. It is not only Japan that is suffering through this seemingly dull nightmare. The United States, Russia and some countries in Europe are going through their own “lost years.” But nothing is truly lost if it leads to something better. 英語をがんばろうと思って学校の宿題＋上の文など　をやくをしているのですが、本当に力がついているのかがわかりません。一番良い英語の勉強法とは何なのでしょうか・・？英単語とイディオムと長文をやっているのですがどうでしょうか・・・。

英文と和訳があります。和訳は正しいですか？

Its provisions applied to all daimyo equally. The military lords were forbidden to: move troops outside their own frontiers; from political alliances among themselves; maintain more than one castle in their domain; marry without shogunal approval. Later prohibitions made it illegal for daimyo to do such things as coin money, enter into direct relations with the court of foreigners as coin money, enter into direct relations with the court of foreigners except with the express permission of the bakufu, ior build large ships except for trade. The military house legislation succeeded in its primary object of protecting the Tokugawa against daimyo attack and ushered in the long period of Tokugawa peace. Civil war, like religious war, became a thing of the past. 和訳その規定はすべての大名に等しく適用された。軍事力をもつ大名は次のようなことを禁止された：自国の国境の外に兵を動かすこと、大名同士の政治的同盟をもつこと、自分の領地に一つ以上の城をもつこと、将軍の許しなしに婚姻すること。後に制定された禁止令は大名が通貨や、通貨を用いて外国の宮廷と直接取引を開始すること、幕府の明確な許可なしに外国の宮廷と直接取引を開始する事または貿易以外の目的で大型船を建造することを非合法とした。軍事力をもつ大名への法律は、大名の攻撃から徳川を守るという一義的目的に成功し、徳川の長きにわたる平和な時代を導いた。宗教戦争のような内乱は過去の物となったのだ。

英文と和訳がありますが、和訳は正しいですか？

The development of hereditary ruling councils owed much to the daimyo’s periodic absences in Edo fulfilling the obligations of the alternate residence system. The device of a ‘’traveling cabinet,’’ i.e., the daimyo taking one or more of his elders with him to Edo, enabled him to keep in touch with han affairs. Nevertheless, of necessity much of his governing authority had to be entrusted to those ministers he left behind in the castle-town, and even when the daimyo was physically in his domain, the prospect of having shortly to leave it again doubtless deterred him from interfering in the elders’ decisions. There was never a time in the Tokugawa period when a strong-willed daimyo could not make his influence felt, but all would-be potentates had to take full account of both national policy and established local practice. 和訳世襲的な大老執政の発達は、大名が参勤交代の義務を果たしながら大名が定期的に江戸に行って（領地から）不在になることに負うところが多かった。大名が長老のうち1人もしくはそれ以上を江戸に伴う、すなわち、「移動内閣」という仕組みは、彼が藩の業務に携わることを可能にしたのだ。にもかかわらず、統治権限の多くは必然的に城下町に残った家臣たちに委託せざるを得ず、大名が実際に自分の領土にいる時でさえ、いくらももたないうちに再び出発せざるをえないという予測は、疑いもなく長老の決定に対する干渉を思いとどまらせた。徳川の世では、強い意志をもった大名にとっては幅を利かせられない時ばかりではなかったが、主君気取りの大名たちはすべて、国家的政策と確立している地域（藩）の慣習の両方を十分に考慮に入れなければならなかったのだ。

英文の和訳

even in colder climates and more puritanical societies it has generally been true that the more clothes someone has on, the higher his or her status. this principle can be observed in medieval and renaissance art, where peasants wear relatively few garments, while kings and queens (including the king and queen of heaven) are burdened with layers of gowns and robes and mantles, even in indoor scenes. the recent fashion for "layered" clothes may be related, as is sometimes claimed, to the energy shortage; it is also a fine way of displaying a large wardrobe. 訳が分かるかたお願いします特にわかりにくいのは (including the king and queen of heaven) と it is also a fine way of displaying a large wardrobe. の部分です。

お手数ですが、次の英文を和訳して下さい。

Traditionally, the tozama were objects of Tokugawa mistrust, and though territorially strong, these lords could never hope to fudai colleagues. Nevertheless, even the tozama benefited from long-term changes. By 1700, it was no longer feasible for any group of daimyo to foment rebellion. Long periods of cohabitation in Edo, a city which was birthplace and childhood home of most of the domainal lords as well as the scene of their later compulsory residences, of outlook among them, and between them and ranking members of the Tokugawa lineage. Marriage and adoption, the later being freely used to ensure that no daimyo family should die out for lack of heirs, worked to the same end. Before long, many of the military lords were related to each other several times over, and similar links bound them to the Kyoto nobility and the Tokugawa house itself.

徳川体制と地方自治について

英文と和訳があります。和訳は正しいでしょうか？

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お礼 2015/11/24 00:39

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英文翻訳をお願いします。

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申し訳ありませんが、次の英文を和訳して下さい。

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英文と和訳がありますが、和訳は正しいですか？

英文の和訳

お手数ですが、次の英文を和訳して下さい。

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