Under the papacies of Calixtus II, Honorius II, Eugenius III and Innocent II smaller scale crusading continued around the Crusader States in the early 12th century. There were campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou between 1120 and 1129, the Venetians in 1122–24, Conrad III of Germany in 1124 and the Knights Templar were established. The period saw the innovation of granting indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies that marked the beginning of politically motivated crusades. The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa (Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi, governor of Mosul led to preaching for what subsequently became known as the Second Crusade. King Louis VII and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to Jerusalem and also Damascus without winning any major victories. Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged the Second Crusade in his preaching, was upset with the violence and slaughter directed towards the Jewish population of the Rhineland.
The term crusade is derived from a Middle Latin cruxata, cruciata. The adjective cruciatus had been used in the sense of "marked with a cross" from the 12th century; cruciatus (also cruxatus, croxatus, crucesignatus) was used of crusaders by the mid 13th century, from their practice of attaching a cloth cross symbol to their clothing. Use of cruxata (cruciata) for "crusade, military expedition against enemies of the church" is in use by the 1280s. The French form croisade and Spanish cruzada are recorded by the 16th century.
The French form of the word first appears in its historiographical sense in the 17th century[3] and it was adopted into English and German in the 18th century.
The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Crusades led by Frederick II may be considered a single campaign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Louis IX.
